Bulgaria's Historical Struggles and Expansion

Conflict with Byzantium (679 A.D.)

At this time, Hellenic Byzantium was occupied with battles against the Arabs. In 679, the Byzantine emperor Constantine II waged war against the Old Bulgarians. Unfortunately, Constantine’s army suffered a severe defeat, and he had to sign a peace treaty, acknowledging the Bulgarian khan’s authority and surrendering all the land that makes up present-day Bulgaria.

Fusion of Slavs and Old Bulgarians

The blending of Slavs and Old Bulgarians into a united people called Bulgarians continued. They expanded south into Thrace and Macedonia and west along the Danube basin into Central Europe.

Conflict with Byzantium (811-813 A.D.)

In 811, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I City Tour Istanbul, concerned about the growing power of the Bulgarians, led an army into Bulgaria. The expedition ended in disaster, with the emperor killed and his army defeated. In 813, the new Byzantine emperor, Michael, launched a stronger attack on the Bulgarians. The Byzantines suffered a significant defeat, and surviving soldiers found safety only within the walls of Byzantium. King Krum of Bulgaria then besieged Byzantium, but when Krum fell ill and died, the Bulgarians withdrew after securing a promise of an annual tribute from Byzantium.

The Golden Age

Reign of King Boris I (865 A.D.)

King Boris I, a crucial Bulgarian ruler, accepted the Byzantine form of Christianity as the official Bulgarian religion in 865. However, tensions and conflicts with Byzantium persisted. Byzantium aimed to Hellenize and assimilate the Bulgarians into their culture, using peaceful means like making Greek the language of the church and state. However, two brothers, Cyril and Methodius, developed an alphabet for the Old Bulgarian language, known today as “Cyrillic.” King Boris I supported the spread of Cyrillic, allowing the Old Bulgarian language to compete with Greek in church rituals and ecclesiastical literature. Cyrillic later extended beyond Bulgaria, reaching other Slavic countries such as Serbia and Russia.

Bulgaria's Historical Struggles and Expansion

Conflict with Byzantium (679 A.D.)

At this time, Hellenic Byzantium was occupied with battles against the Arabs. In 679, the Byzantine emperor Constantine II waged war against the Old Bulgarians. Unfortunately, Constantine’s army suffered a severe defeat, and he had to sign a peace treaty, acknowledging the Bulgarian khan’s authority and surrendering all the land that makes up present-day Bulgaria.

Fusion of Slavs and Old Bulgarians

The blending of Slavs and Old Bulgarians into a united people called Bulgarians continued. They expanded south into Thrace and Macedonia and west along the Danube basin into Central Europe.

Conflict with Byzantium (811-813 A.D.)

In 811, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I City Tour Istanbul, concerned about the growing power of the Bulgarians, led an army into Bulgaria. The expedition ended in disaster, with the emperor killed and his army defeated. In 813, the new Byzantine emperor, Michael, launched a stronger attack on the Bulgarians. The Byzantines suffered a significant defeat, and surviving soldiers found safety only within the walls of Byzantium. King Krum of Bulgaria then besieged Byzantium, but when Krum fell ill and died, the Bulgarians withdrew after securing a promise of an annual tribute from Byzantium.

The Golden Age

Reign of King Boris I (865 A.D.)

King Boris I, a crucial Bulgarian ruler, accepted the Byzantine form of Christianity as the official Bulgarian religion in 865. However, tensions and conflicts with Byzantium persisted. Byzantium aimed to Hellenize and assimilate the Bulgarians into their culture, using peaceful means like making Greek the language of the church and state. However, two brothers, Cyril and Methodius, developed an alphabet for the Old Bulgarian language, known today as “Cyrillic.” King Boris I supported the spread of Cyrillic, allowing the Old Bulgarian language to compete with Greek in church rituals and ecclesiastical literature. Cyrillic later extended beyond Bulgaria, reaching other Slavic countries such as Serbia and Russia.

Bulgaria's Historical Struggles and Expansion

Conflict with Byzantium (679 A.D.)

At this time, Hellenic Byzantium was occupied with battles against the Arabs. In 679, the Byzantine emperor Constantine II waged war against the Old Bulgarians. Unfortunately, Constantine’s army suffered a severe defeat, and he had to sign a peace treaty, acknowledging the Bulgarian khan’s authority and surrendering all the land that makes up present-day Bulgaria.

Fusion of Slavs and Old Bulgarians

The blending of Slavs and Old Bulgarians into a united people called Bulgarians continued. They expanded south into Thrace and Macedonia and west along the Danube basin into Central Europe.

Conflict with Byzantium (811-813 A.D.)

In 811, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I City Tour Istanbul, concerned about the growing power of the Bulgarians, led an army into Bulgaria. The expedition ended in disaster, with the emperor killed and his army defeated. In 813, the new Byzantine emperor, Michael, launched a stronger attack on the Bulgarians. The Byzantines suffered a significant defeat, and surviving soldiers found safety only within the walls of Byzantium. King Krum of Bulgaria then besieged Byzantium, but when Krum fell ill and died, the Bulgarians withdrew after securing a promise of an annual tribute from Byzantium.

The Golden Age

Reign of King Boris I (865 A.D.)

King Boris I, a crucial Bulgarian ruler, accepted the Byzantine form of Christianity as the official Bulgarian religion in 865. However, tensions and conflicts with Byzantium persisted. Byzantium aimed to Hellenize and assimilate the Bulgarians into their culture, using peaceful means like making Greek the language of the church and state. However, two brothers, Cyril and Methodius, developed an alphabet for the Old Bulgarian language, known today as “Cyrillic.” King Boris I supported the spread of Cyrillic, allowing the Old Bulgarian language to compete with Greek in church rituals and ecclesiastical literature. Cyrillic later extended beyond Bulgaria, reaching other Slavic countries such as Serbia and Russia.

Bulgaria's Historical Struggles and Expansion

Conflict with Byzantium (679 A.D.)

At this time, Hellenic Byzantium was occupied with battles against the Arabs. In 679, the Byzantine emperor Constantine II waged war against the Old Bulgarians. Unfortunately, Constantine’s army suffered a severe defeat, and he had to sign a peace treaty, acknowledging the Bulgarian khan’s authority and surrendering all the land that makes up present-day Bulgaria.

Fusion of Slavs and Old Bulgarians

The blending of Slavs and Old Bulgarians into a united people called Bulgarians continued. They expanded south into Thrace and Macedonia and west along the Danube basin into Central Europe.

Conflict with Byzantium (811-813 A.D.)

In 811, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I City Tour Istanbul, concerned about the growing power of the Bulgarians, led an army into Bulgaria. The expedition ended in disaster, with the emperor killed and his army defeated. In 813, the new Byzantine emperor, Michael, launched a stronger attack on the Bulgarians. The Byzantines suffered a significant defeat, and surviving soldiers found safety only within the walls of Byzantium. King Krum of Bulgaria then besieged Byzantium, but when Krum fell ill and died, the Bulgarians withdrew after securing a promise of an annual tribute from Byzantium.

The Golden Age

Reign of King Boris I (865 A.D.)

King Boris I, a crucial Bulgarian ruler, accepted the Byzantine form of Christianity as the official Bulgarian religion in 865. However, tensions and conflicts with Byzantium persisted. Byzantium aimed to Hellenize and assimilate the Bulgarians into their culture, using peaceful means like making Greek the language of the church and state. However, two brothers, Cyril and Methodius, developed an alphabet for the Old Bulgarian language, known today as “Cyrillic.” King Boris I supported the spread of Cyrillic, allowing the Old Bulgarian language to compete with Greek in church rituals and ecclesiastical literature. Cyrillic later extended beyond Bulgaria, reaching other Slavic countries such as Serbia and Russia.

The Arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans

Background

The Slavs, originating from the eastern regions of the Russian steppe, arrived in the Balkan Peninsula around the 5th century. Over the next two and a half centuries, they gradually occupied the area, pushing aside the local Hellenized population, especially in Thrace and Macedonia. By the end of this period, the Slavs had settled across the entire peninsula, except for the coastal regions where the existing inhabitants relied on the military strength of Byzantium to keep the new settlers away.

Byzantine Relations with the Slavs

The Byzantine emperors did not see the Slavs as enemies. The Slavs were peaceful tribes who became farmers and herders. They were not aggressive or politically driven. Over time, the Slavic settlers were even called upon to fight alongside the Byzantines against common enemies. The Byzantine ruling court viewed the gradual settlement of Slavic farmers and herdsmen in the Balkans favorably City Tour Istanbul.

Old Bulgarians’ Arrival (Around 650 A.D.)

Around 650 A.D., a powerful group of Old Bulgarians, led by their khan Asparukh, arrived at the banks of the Danube, dividing Romania from Bulgaria. Settling in North Dobrudja, they initiated raids on Byzantine territory. The Old Bulgarians had originated from the region between the Volga River and its tributary, the Kama. Unlike the Slavs, they were more politically oriented. Over the centuries, small migrant groups of Old Bulgarians had integrated into Slavic communities. The Old Bulgarians, skilled organizers, extended their political influence over the Slavs, providing them with a name, a sense of unity, and leadership. They adopted the Slavs’ language and embraced a greater sense of democratic policy.

The Arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans

Background

The Slavs, originating from the eastern regions of the Russian steppe, arrived in the Balkan Peninsula around the 5th century. Over the next two and a half centuries, they gradually occupied the area, pushing aside the local Hellenized population, especially in Thrace and Macedonia. By the end of this period, the Slavs had settled across the entire peninsula, except for the coastal regions where the existing inhabitants relied on the military strength of Byzantium to keep the new settlers away.

Byzantine Relations with the Slavs

The Byzantine emperors did not see the Slavs as enemies. The Slavs were peaceful tribes who became farmers and herders. They were not aggressive or politically driven. Over time, the Slavic settlers were even called upon to fight alongside the Byzantines against common enemies. The Byzantine ruling court viewed the gradual settlement of Slavic farmers and herdsmen in the Balkans favorably City Tour Istanbul.

Old Bulgarians’ Arrival (Around 650 A.D.)

Around 650 A.D., a powerful group of Old Bulgarians, led by their khan Asparukh, arrived at the banks of the Danube, dividing Romania from Bulgaria. Settling in North Dobrudja, they initiated raids on Byzantine territory. The Old Bulgarians had originated from the region between the Volga River and its tributary, the Kama. Unlike the Slavs, they were more politically oriented. Over the centuries, small migrant groups of Old Bulgarians had integrated into Slavic communities. The Old Bulgarians, skilled organizers, extended their political influence over the Slavs, providing them with a name, a sense of unity, and leadership. They adopted the Slavs’ language and embraced a greater sense of democratic policy.

The Arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans

Background

The Slavs, originating from the eastern regions of the Russian steppe, arrived in the Balkan Peninsula around the 5th century. Over the next two and a half centuries, they gradually occupied the area, pushing aside the local Hellenized population, especially in Thrace and Macedonia. By the end of this period, the Slavs had settled across the entire peninsula, except for the coastal regions where the existing inhabitants relied on the military strength of Byzantium to keep the new settlers away.

Byzantine Relations with the Slavs

The Byzantine emperors did not see the Slavs as enemies. The Slavs were peaceful tribes who became farmers and herders. They were not aggressive or politically driven. Over time, the Slavic settlers were even called upon to fight alongside the Byzantines against common enemies. The Byzantine ruling court viewed the gradual settlement of Slavic farmers and herdsmen in the Balkans favorably City Tour Istanbul.

Old Bulgarians’ Arrival (Around 650 A.D.)

Around 650 A.D., a powerful group of Old Bulgarians, led by their khan Asparukh, arrived at the banks of the Danube, dividing Romania from Bulgaria. Settling in North Dobrudja, they initiated raids on Byzantine territory. The Old Bulgarians had originated from the region between the Volga River and its tributary, the Kama. Unlike the Slavs, they were more politically oriented. Over the centuries, small migrant groups of Old Bulgarians had integrated into Slavic communities. The Old Bulgarians, skilled organizers, extended their political influence over the Slavs, providing them with a name, a sense of unity, and leadership. They adopted the Slavs’ language and embraced a greater sense of democratic policy.

The Arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans

Background

The Slavs, originating from the eastern regions of the Russian steppe, arrived in the Balkan Peninsula around the 5th century. Over the next two and a half centuries, they gradually occupied the area, pushing aside the local Hellenized population, especially in Thrace and Macedonia. By the end of this period, the Slavs had settled across the entire peninsula, except for the coastal regions where the existing inhabitants relied on the military strength of Byzantium to keep the new settlers away.

Byzantine Relations with the Slavs

The Byzantine emperors did not see the Slavs as enemies. The Slavs were peaceful tribes who became farmers and herders. They were not aggressive or politically driven. Over time, the Slavic settlers were even called upon to fight alongside the Byzantines against common enemies. The Byzantine ruling court viewed the gradual settlement of Slavic farmers and herdsmen in the Balkans favorably City Tour Istanbul.

Old Bulgarians’ Arrival (Around 650 A.D.)

Around 650 A.D., a powerful group of Old Bulgarians, led by their khan Asparukh, arrived at the banks of the Danube, dividing Romania from Bulgaria. Settling in North Dobrudja, they initiated raids on Byzantine territory. The Old Bulgarians had originated from the region between the Volga River and its tributary, the Kama. Unlike the Slavs, they were more politically oriented. Over the centuries, small migrant groups of Old Bulgarians had integrated into Slavic communities. The Old Bulgarians, skilled organizers, extended their political influence over the Slavs, providing them with a name, a sense of unity, and leadership. They adopted the Slavs’ language and embraced a greater sense of democratic policy.

The Arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans

Background

The Slavs, originating from the eastern regions of the Russian steppe, arrived in the Balkan Peninsula around the 5th century. Over the next two and a half centuries, they gradually occupied the area, pushing aside the local Hellenized population, especially in Thrace and Macedonia. By the end of this period, the Slavs had settled across the entire peninsula, except for the coastal regions where the existing inhabitants relied on the military strength of Byzantium to keep the new settlers away.

Byzantine Relations with the Slavs

The Byzantine emperors did not see the Slavs as enemies. The Slavs were peaceful tribes who became farmers and herders. They were not aggressive or politically driven. Over time, the Slavic settlers were even called upon to fight alongside the Byzantines against common enemies. The Byzantine ruling court viewed the gradual settlement of Slavic farmers and herdsmen in the Balkans favorably City Tour Istanbul.

Old Bulgarians’ Arrival (Around 650 A.D.)

Around 650 A.D., a powerful group of Old Bulgarians, led by their khan Asparukh, arrived at the banks of the Danube, dividing Romania from Bulgaria. Settling in North Dobrudja, they initiated raids on Byzantine territory. The Old Bulgarians had originated from the region between the Volga River and its tributary, the Kama. Unlike the Slavs, they were more politically oriented. Over the centuries, small migrant groups of Old Bulgarians had integrated into Slavic communities. The Old Bulgarians, skilled organizers, extended their political influence over the Slavs, providing them with a name, a sense of unity, and leadership. They adopted the Slavs’ language and embraced a greater sense of democratic policy.

Geography and Natural Resources of Bulgaria

Landscapes and Waterways

Bulgaria is a country with a lot of mountains, plains, and rivers. On one side of the rectangular-shaped Bulgaria, there is a coast along the Black Sea. The varied landscapes and the sea have made the country good for farming, raising animals, and forestry. Important crops include cereals, grapes, potatoes, silkworms, roses, and tobacco.

Geographical Information

Area: 42,785 square miles

Latitude and Longitude: 44°12’50” to 41°14’12” N, 22°21’35” to 23°36’37’’ E

Population (1956 census): 7,613,709

Population (1962 preliminary data): 8,046,000

Population Density (1956): 179 people per square mile

Major Cities

The largest cities in Bulgaria are Sofia City Tour Istanbul, Plovdiv, Varna, Russe, and Burgas, according to the 1956 census.

Population Changes

In 1946, 74% of the population lived in rural areas, and 26% in urban areas. By 1956, this had shifted to 65% in rural areas and 35% in urban areas.

Ethnic Diversity

1984:

Bulgarians (Slavs): 86.8%

Turks: 10.2%

Gypsies: 1.3%

Jews: 0.5%

Others: 1.2%

1952:

Bulgarians (Slavs): 91%

Turks: 6%

Gypsies: 2%

Jews: 0.04%

Others: 0.96%

Languages and Minorities

The main language is Bulgarian (Slavonic). Turkish is spoken by the Turkish minority, and Old Spanish is spoken by the Jewish minority, among other languages. The numbers of the Turkish and Jewish minority groups have decreased under the Communist regime due to emigration.

Religion

The exact percentage of religious followers is not available due to the Communist regime’s stance against religion. Despite discouraging religious practices, the regime uses the church for propaganda. The majority of the population is considered Greek Orthodox, with Islam as the second-largest religion. There are also small percentages of Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and others.

Mining and Natural Resources

Coal (1962): 20,800,000 tons

Iron (1962): 628,000 tons

Copper (1962): 93,000 tons

Lead and Zinc (1956): 1,500,000 tons

Oil (1961): 207,000 tons

Bulgaria has rich mineral resources, including coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, and oil. Varna, near the Black Sea, and the Pleven district are significant locations for mineral deposits, particularly crude oil discovered in 1962. The country also boasts around 400 mineral springs, with famous ones like the baths of Hisara, Merichleri, and Separevo.

Geography and Natural Resources of Bulgaria

Landscapes and Waterways

Bulgaria is a country with a lot of mountains, plains, and rivers. On one side of the rectangular-shaped Bulgaria, there is a coast along the Black Sea. The varied landscapes and the sea have made the country good for farming, raising animals, and forestry. Important crops include cereals, grapes, potatoes, silkworms, roses, and tobacco.

Geographical Information

Area: 42,785 square miles

Latitude and Longitude: 44°12’50” to 41°14’12” N, 22°21’35” to 23°36’37’’ E

Population (1956 census): 7,613,709

Population (1962 preliminary data): 8,046,000

Population Density (1956): 179 people per square mile

Major Cities

The largest cities in Bulgaria are Sofia City Tour Istanbul, Plovdiv, Varna, Russe, and Burgas, according to the 1956 census.

Population Changes

In 1946, 74% of the population lived in rural areas, and 26% in urban areas. By 1956, this had shifted to 65% in rural areas and 35% in urban areas.

Ethnic Diversity

1984:

Bulgarians (Slavs): 86.8%

Turks: 10.2%

Gypsies: 1.3%

Jews: 0.5%

Others: 1.2%

1952:

Bulgarians (Slavs): 91%

Turks: 6%

Gypsies: 2%

Jews: 0.04%

Others: 0.96%

Languages and Minorities

The main language is Bulgarian (Slavonic). Turkish is spoken by the Turkish minority, and Old Spanish is spoken by the Jewish minority, among other languages. The numbers of the Turkish and Jewish minority groups have decreased under the Communist regime due to emigration.

Religion

The exact percentage of religious followers is not available due to the Communist regime’s stance against religion. Despite discouraging religious practices, the regime uses the church for propaganda. The majority of the population is considered Greek Orthodox, with Islam as the second-largest religion. There are also small percentages of Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and others.

Mining and Natural Resources

Coal (1962): 20,800,000 tons

Iron (1962): 628,000 tons

Copper (1962): 93,000 tons

Lead and Zinc (1956): 1,500,000 tons

Oil (1961): 207,000 tons

Bulgaria has rich mineral resources, including coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, and oil. Varna, near the Black Sea, and the Pleven district are significant locations for mineral deposits, particularly crude oil discovered in 1962. The country also boasts around 400 mineral springs, with famous ones like the baths of Hisara, Merichleri, and Separevo.

Geography and Natural Resources of Bulgaria

Landscapes and Waterways

Bulgaria is a country with a lot of mountains, plains, and rivers. On one side of the rectangular-shaped Bulgaria, there is a coast along the Black Sea. The varied landscapes and the sea have made the country good for farming, raising animals, and forestry. Important crops include cereals, grapes, potatoes, silkworms, roses, and tobacco.

Geographical Information

Area: 42,785 square miles

Latitude and Longitude: 44°12’50” to 41°14’12” N, 22°21’35” to 23°36’37’’ E

Population (1956 census): 7,613,709

Population (1962 preliminary data): 8,046,000

Population Density (1956): 179 people per square mile

Major Cities

The largest cities in Bulgaria are Sofia City Tour Istanbul, Plovdiv, Varna, Russe, and Burgas, according to the 1956 census.

Population Changes

In 1946, 74% of the population lived in rural areas, and 26% in urban areas. By 1956, this had shifted to 65% in rural areas and 35% in urban areas.

Ethnic Diversity

1984:

Bulgarians (Slavs): 86.8%

Turks: 10.2%

Gypsies: 1.3%

Jews: 0.5%

Others: 1.2%

1952:

Bulgarians (Slavs): 91%

Turks: 6%

Gypsies: 2%

Jews: 0.04%

Others: 0.96%

Languages and Minorities

The main language is Bulgarian (Slavonic). Turkish is spoken by the Turkish minority, and Old Spanish is spoken by the Jewish minority, among other languages. The numbers of the Turkish and Jewish minority groups have decreased under the Communist regime due to emigration.

Religion

The exact percentage of religious followers is not available due to the Communist regime’s stance against religion. Despite discouraging religious practices, the regime uses the church for propaganda. The majority of the population is considered Greek Orthodox, with Islam as the second-largest religion. There are also small percentages of Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and others.

Mining and Natural Resources

Coal (1962): 20,800,000 tons

Iron (1962): 628,000 tons

Copper (1962): 93,000 tons

Lead and Zinc (1956): 1,500,000 tons

Oil (1961): 207,000 tons

Bulgaria has rich mineral resources, including coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, and oil. Varna, near the Black Sea, and the Pleven district are significant locations for mineral deposits, particularly crude oil discovered in 1962. The country also boasts around 400 mineral springs, with famous ones like the baths of Hisara, Merichleri, and Separevo.

Bulgaria Geographical Overview

Location and Borders

Bulgaria is situated to the east of the Black Sea and to the south of the Danube River, acting as a natural border with Romania to the north. Its western border connects with Yugoslavia, and in the south, the geographical features of Greece and Turkey separate Bulgaria from the Aegean Sea. This region, known as the Balkan Peninsula, serves as a crucial link connecting southeastern Europe to Asia Minor.

Geography and Size

Geographically, present-day Bulgaria resembles a rectangular shape with somewhat wavy and irregular borders. Its location is approximately similar to the latitude of New York state in the western hemisphere, and its size is comparable to that of the state of Tennessee.

Major Cities and Ports

The capital city, Sofia, is centrally located near the Yugoslav border. Plovdiv, the second-largest city, is situated on the Thracian Plain between the Balkan and Rhodope Mountains. Varna, the primary seaport, is on the Black Sea, along with Burgas to the south City Tour Istanbul. Other significant cities include Tirnovo, Gabrovo, and Pleven in the north on the Danubian Plain, while Russe serves as a major river port on the Danube, west of the disputed region of Dobrudja.

Land Features

The Balkan Mountain Chain, also known as Stara Planina, acts as a dividing line between northern and southern Bulgaria. Above the Balkans lies the Danubian plain, with several rivers draining north into the Danube basin. Mt. Musala, the highest peak in the Balkan Peninsula, stands at 8,683 feet, located below the Balkans. The Pita Mountains give rise to three major rivers within Bulgaria’s borders: the Iskar, Maritsa, and Mesta, with Maritsa being the largest. Additionally, the Struma is another significant inland river in the southwest.

Bulgaria Geographical Overview

Location and Borders

Bulgaria is situated to the east of the Black Sea and to the south of the Danube River, acting as a natural border with Romania to the north. Its western border connects with Yugoslavia, and in the south, the geographical features of Greece and Turkey separate Bulgaria from the Aegean Sea. This region, known as the Balkan Peninsula, serves as a crucial link connecting southeastern Europe to Asia Minor.

Geography and Size

Geographically, present-day Bulgaria resembles a rectangular shape with somewhat wavy and irregular borders. Its location is approximately similar to the latitude of New York state in the western hemisphere, and its size is comparable to that of the state of Tennessee.

Major Cities and Ports

The capital city, Sofia, is centrally located near the Yugoslav border. Plovdiv, the second-largest city, is situated on the Thracian Plain between the Balkan and Rhodope Mountains. Varna, the primary seaport, is on the Black Sea, along with Burgas to the south City Tour Istanbul. Other significant cities include Tirnovo, Gabrovo, and Pleven in the north on the Danubian Plain, while Russe serves as a major river port on the Danube, west of the disputed region of Dobrudja.

Land Features

The Balkan Mountain Chain, also known as Stara Planina, acts as a dividing line between northern and southern Bulgaria. Above the Balkans lies the Danubian plain, with several rivers draining north into the Danube basin. Mt. Musala, the highest peak in the Balkan Peninsula, stands at 8,683 feet, located below the Balkans. The Pita Mountains give rise to three major rivers within Bulgaria’s borders: the Iskar, Maritsa, and Mesta, with Maritsa being the largest. Additionally, the Struma is another significant inland river in the southwest.

Tenth centuries Constantinople was assailed by no less than six invasions

During the ninth and tenth centuries Constantinople was assailed by no less than six invasions— from Bulgaria, from Hungary, and four times from Russia.

In 1096 A.D. Constantinople was visited by the Crusaders under Godfrey de Bouillon, on their way to Jerusalem. The Emperor Alexius was an assenting party to the armed confederation of western chivalry which initiated the Crusades, and, through his ambassadors, had pledged the aid of his treasures and of his troops.

But when he saw the hosts of the Christian armies collected beneath the walls of his capital, and contrasted the strength, numbers, discipline, and brilliant equipment of his allies with the too evident weakness of his own troops, he recognised his inability to resist, if, as he feared might be the case, they should be tempted from their sterner purpose by the attractions of his capital, and should prefer the substantial pleasures of the present Constantinople to the more distant and dangerous honours of the conquest of Jerusalem. However, he adopted a policy of conciliation, and, after being kept on the tenter-hooks of alternate hope and fear, had at last the satisfaction of seeing them depart.

One institution of Alexius

There is one institution of Alexius and of these later rulers of the Eastern Empire which is of special interest to Englishmen, viz. the Royal Varangian Guard. The best of the native soldiers were enrolled in battalions under the proud title of ‘ the Immortals but, partaking as they did of the general effeminacy of the nation in its decadence, they could by no means be relied upon in the field, while at home they more frequently than otherwise aided any insurrectionary risings of the citizens instead of supporting the crown.

The Greek sovereigns, therefore, maintained a number of mercenary troops. These at first consisted of the Heruli, the offscouring of the hordes of Alaric and of Attila, or of the conquered bar-barians from the coast of Africa; but were in later times composed of the adventurous mariners who, in a preceding century, had made voyages from Denmark and from the shores of the Baltic daily tours istanbul, and of a large importation from England of noble Anglo-Saxon youths, who preferred military service in a foreign court to submission to the Norman conqueror.

These English exiles were the safe-guards of the throne of Alexius, and to them he looked as being alike willing and able to help in any fray or contest with embarrassing Norman auxiliaries and allies. The Varangian Guard were the only troops which showed fight against the invaders when, in A.D. 1203, the army of Norman nobles forming the fourth Crusade turned aside from their purpose at the instance of the Republic of Venice, and, with the assistance of the Venetian galleys, attacked Constantinople simultaneously by sea and land and took the city. Willardouin, in describing this siege, says: ‘ Li murs fu mult garnis d’Anglois et de Danois.’ Henry Dandolo, the ‘ Octogenarian Chief the blind Doge of

Between Jambaz and Taxim Tepe

ANTIQUE THEATRE

Trimontium’s antique theatre lies on the low ground between Jambaz and Taxim Tepe. Archaeological excavations have uncovered one of the best-preserved antique theatres in the world, built at the beginning of the 2nd c. during Emperor Trayan’s rule. The theatron, the spectators’ section, is amphitheatrical, in two semi-circles with a wide horizontal aisle in between. Each tier has 14 rows of marble seats divided into sectors by aisles. The area of the stage excels in architectural design. The skene at the back is a two-storey structure with lateral wings ending in imposing triangular pediments.

Inscriptions and exquisite statues found Antique Theatre of Philippopolis on the site have been incorporated in the architecture of the building. The theatre must have seated 5 to 7 thousand people. A fire or an earthquake at the end of the 4th c. caused irreparable damage to this remarkable antique building. The splendid skene was completely demolished, just 20 out of the 28 rows of the theatron survived. In spite of the serious destruction, archaeological research made it possible to execute a successful restoration. Now the ancient building has been entirely adapted to the contemporary cultural functions of Plovdiv and it shows various performances before an audience of 5000 people.

ANTIQUE STADIUM

The imposing remains of the stadium of Philippopolis (Trimontium) were discovered under the square west of Jumaya Mosque (Friday Mosque). Part of them is now displayed below the level of the busy street. The majestic structure measures 1000 Roman steps in length (250m) by 250 steps in width (74m). The main entrance into the stadium is below the junction of Knyaz Alexander I Street and Dr Valkovitch Street. It was designed in the solemn style of Asia Minor cities like Miletus holidays bulgaria, Ephesus and Aspendos. The seats arranged in 14 marble, amphitheatrical rows stand on supports decorated with high relief lions’ paws. The major part of the stadium is occupied by the racetrack whose length is 600 Roman steps.

It starts at the main entrance and reaches the northern side turning into a bend to accommodate chariot-racing. Part of this sector is displayed under street level and under the open sky. The marble seats and the track are clearly identifiable. In the middle of the bend there is an arched corridor leading out into a street built of large syenite slabs. You can see the impressive bases of the columns supporting the aqueduct, which fed the large reservoir on Taxim Tepe with water from the Rhodope Mountains.

During Philippopolis’ apogee (2nd -4th c.) the Antique (Roman) stadium was the venue of the traditional athletic games organized in honour of the god Apollo and Alexander of Macedon. After the Emperor Theodosius the Great suspended the games at the end of the 4th c. the Philippopolis stadium was used as a hippodrome. The final information about it comes from the Byzantine autheress Anna Comnenus (end of the 11thc.) who was deeply impressed . by what had remained of the Roman stadium. In its heyday the stadium could seat thirty thousand spectators and was one of the major public facilities in ancient Philippopolis.

Ihtiman

The next town is Ihtiman (pop. 11,500). Three kilometres north of which are the mins of the medieval town of Stipone. Eledjik Hotel, 2 stars, 120 beds, tel. 24-05. Ihtiman motel, 3 stars, 3 floors, 44 double rooms, a restaurant, night club, free shop and information bureau. Tel. 99-71-41 — 2301.

9 km from Ihtiman along the E-80 road is the Leshta Han restaurant, with its lentil speciality. A further 10 km to the left of the road is the Mirovo national inn. There are bungalows around it for use in summer.

Then comes Kostenets (pop. 10,500).

The mineral spring in the Momin Prohod residential area is 25ih highest in the world for radioactivity and its water temperature is 64.5°C. It is recommended for diabetes, ulcers, rheumatism and skm diseases. The town has an international specialist children’s sanatorium and other therapeutical clinics and rest houses private tour istanbul. Georgi Dimitrov balneological and climatic resort is open all the year round, the water temperature of the mineral spring is 46 °C.

Further on 5 km from Belovo is a camp site with a swimming pool containing mineral water. The camp site has a restaurant and a parking lot. To the right of Belovo a road leads to the mountain resort of Yundola situated between the Rila and the Rhodope Mountains at an altitude of 1,350 m.

Born in Velingrad

40 km further on is the town of Velingrad (pop. 25,000). The town’s 77 mineral springs have a round-the-clock capacity of 5 million litres. Water temperature is from 22 to 90.5°C. In addition to rheumatism, the waters are also used to treat diseases of the peripheral nervous system, gynaecological diseases, inflammatory processes of the respiratory system and the lungs. As a climatic resort Velingrad is also suitable for the treatment of bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, thyrotoxicosis, secondary anaemia, etc. Vela Peeva, a prominent partisan, was born in Velingrad and the town is now named after her. She was wounded in 1944 in a skirmish with the po-

lice but managed to escape and hid in the mountains for 37 days. She was discovered and after a five-hour struggle she took her own life. Her birthplace is now a museum.

The Kleptouza spring with a capacity of 900 1/sec. is in the Chepino quarter. There is a restaurant nearby.

Wood and wood-processing hold a prominent place in the town’s economy. The huge hothouses outside the town heated by hot mineral water, grow carnations, 80 per cent of which are exported to the USSR, Austria, FR Germany, Noway and even to the Netherlands.

Mouraviev government

Day Three. The Mouraviev government continues to manoeuvre. The Bulgarian Communist Party organizes mass de-monstrations, strikes, meetings and calls upon the people to rebel. Partisan units from the mountains converge on the cities.

Day Four. The Bulgarian Communist Party organizes a street demonstration in Sofia. The police interfere and arrests are made.

Day Five. Several hours after the Soviet Union has declared war on Bulgaria, the Politburo of the Bulgarian Communist Party and the General Staff of the National Liberation Army hold a meeting to approve a plan for an armed uprising. The main blow has to be struck in Sofia on the night of September 8. Todor Zhivkov, Head of the General Staff of the National Liberation Army, and Peter Iliev, member of the Staff, take part in the meeting.

Day Six. A strike by tram workers paralyzes transport. Demonstrations and meetings of crucial importance to the revolutionary struggle in the country are organized, Units of the Liberation Army occupy more than 20 villages.

Day Seven. The City Party Committee organizes a rally in the garden of the Maternity Hospital. The police attack, kill the trade unionist Peter Topalov-Schmidt and wound two commanders of combat groups. Partisans of the local detachment guarding the rally kill the policeman who fired the shot and disperse the rest of the police force. The Pemik miners and the tobacco workers in Plovdiv go on strike. Demonstrators in Pleven, Varna, Sliven and Sflistra break open the prison gates and free political prisoners. Partisans liberate Gabrovo, Pazardjik, Panagy urishte and fight in other localities.

Plovdiv, Tumovo, Rousse, Lovech

Day Eight daily sofia tour. The revolution spreads. Under the pressure of the people the authorities in Plovdiv, Tumovo, Rousse, Lovech, Yambol and other towns free political prisoners. Demonstrators in Gabrovo start an uprising, disarming local troops and occupying the greater part of the town.

The last secret session of the Politburo is held in Sofia in Morava Street. It decides on a surprise crucial blow at 2.00 ajn. on September 9 to occupy all military and communication centres and to establish a Popular Front government. The main blow is to be struck in Sofia.

At 4 pjn. a session of the National Committee of the Popular Front is held in the home of Kimon Georgiev, the future Prime Minister. The composition of the government is decided and the text of its policy approved.

Day Nine. The crucial blow is struck. In a mere half hour Bulgarian patriots seize the Ministry of War, occupy the radio, Post Office and other government departments. The ministers and regents of the fascist monarchal government are arrested. The first infantry division stationed in the capital and the police force are neutralized by units of the Chavdar partisan brigade, the local partisan detachment and the armed regiment.

At 6,25 a.m. Kimon Georgiev broadcasts the declaration of the newly established Popular Front government.