Open Profession of the Christian Faith

In spite of tyranny and many clever plans made against it, the Christian faith continued to be openly professed in many parts of the Ottoman Empire. This survival was not only due to God’s providence, but also to certain strong customs within the churches, especially among the Greeks and Armenians.

It must be said that in some places the people had little religious education. The clergy were often poor, and many believers had few opportunities to hear sermons or receive proper teaching. Books were rare, and catechisms were not always available. Because of this, knowledge of doctrine was sometimes weak or confused Istanbul Old City Tours.

However, the strict observance of church feasts and fasts helped preserve their faith. The people carefully followed the religious calendar. They kept holy days, attended liturgies, and observed periods of fasting with seriousness and discipline. Through these outward ceremonies, they learned at least the basic ideas of their religion. Even if they did not fully understand every teaching, they remembered important events and truths through repeated practice.

Over time, when preaching and instruction became less common, these customs remained. Habit and tradition kept religious life alive. Though some services were neglected and knowledge was limited, devotion through ritual continued. In this way, the Christian communities of the Greek and Armenian Churches survived difficult times under Ottoman rule.

The Slave Trade from the Black Sea

The Ottomans also received a large supply of people from another source. From the region around the Black Sea, slave traders brought many captives into the empire. These captives were often taken by Tatar horsemen.

The Tatars, especially the Crimean Khanate, were known for their fast and light cavalry. They made sudden attacks into the lands of neighboring Christian territories. During these raids, they captured large numbers of men, women, and children. Sometimes whole towns were emptied of people.

Most of these captives were then sent to Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. There they were sold in slave markets. This trade became one of the main sources of wealth for the Tatar regions. It was an important and regular business, providing labor, soldiers, and servants for the empire.

A Harsh Reality

These practices show the difficult situation faced by many Christian communities. On one side, they struggled to preserve their faith with limited resources and education. On the other side, they faced raids, captivity, and forced displacement.

Yet even under such harsh conditions, many communities continued to exist. Their survival depended not on power or wealth, but on tradition, discipline, and a deep attachment to their religious identity.

Converts Who Became Zealous Turks

Many of those who converted to Islam did not remain half-hearted believers. Over time, they became fully part of Turkish society. Through habit, education, and personal ambition, some truly believed in their new religion. Others, even if they once doubted, grew attached to their new identity.

In many cases, these converts became stronger enemies of Christianity than the Turks by birth. They tried to prove their loyalty and devotion. History shows that several famous Ottoman commanders at sea were originally Christians who had converted. One example is Cığalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha, who had been born into a Christian family but later rose to high rank in the Ottoman navy. Such men often fought fiercely against the lands and faith of their childhood Istanbul Old City Tours.

Their success in battle, especially at sea, helped strengthen the empire. At the same time, their actions showed how completely they had adopted their new cause.

The Taking of Christian Children

In earlier centuries, the Ottomans followed a strict system known as the devshirme. Every few years, Christian boys were taken from their families in conquered territories. These children were educated in Islam and trained for service in the army or government.

Through this policy, the empire increased its own population while weakening the Christian communities. The strongest and most talented boys were removed from their homes and raised as loyal servants of the Sultan.

In later times, this custom became less common. There were already many Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and others living under Ottoman rule. Many of them chose to convert voluntarily, hoping to gain social advantages and avoid heavy discrimination.

Pressure and Poverty

It is not surprising that some Christians abandoned their faith. They often lived under oppression and contempt. Heavy taxes and limited rights made life difficult. In addition, poverty among the clergy sometimes led to poor education in the churches. Without strong teaching and support, some believers became discouraged.

Faced with hardship, a few chose to convert in order to improve their condition. They hoped for better treatment and greater opportunity.

The Survival of the Church

Yet despite this pressure, many Christians remained faithful. It is remarkable that, under such difficult circumstances, Christian communities continued to exist. Their survival seemed to fulfill the words of Jesus Christ, who said that the gates of hell would not prevail against his Church.

Even in times of persecution and loss, faith endured. Though many were taken, converted, or discouraged, others remained firm. Their perseverance stands as a testimony to the strength of belief under trial.

The Roman Example of Citizenship

The Romans clearly understood the advantage of welcoming foreigners into their state. They created a law called jus civitatis, which means the right of citizenship. Through this right, foreigners could become full members of Roman society.

Those who received citizenship could legally own property and land. They could inherit estates and enjoy the same privileges as people born inside the city of Rome. Sometimes entire families were granted this right together.

By doing this, the Romans strengthened their empire. The English philosopher Francis Bacon once said that the Romans did not simply spread themselves over the world; rather, they spread the world itself. In other words, they made many different peoples part of their own nation Istanbul Old City Tours.

In England, this process is called naturalization. In France, it is called enfranchisement. Though the names are different, the idea is the same: foreigners are accepted and given full rights.

The Ottoman Way of Acceptance

The Turks also welcomed outsiders, but they joined this acceptance with religion. To become fully part of Ottoman society, a person had to become a believer in Islam. Conversion was not only a political act but also a religious one.

This made the offer more powerful. The convert was promised not only material benefits in this world, such as protection, opportunity, and social advancement, but also spiritual rewards in the life to come. These promises made conversion very attractive to many.

Among Muslims, it was considered a good and meritorious deed to bring new believers into the faith. Because of this belief, many people sought to convert others. A man who had enough money would sometimes buy a young slave, raise him in Islam, and later present him as a convert. This brought honor and reputation among neighbors, as it showed that he had increased the number of the faithful.

The Serious Cost of Conversion

However, once a person accepted Islam, there was no easy return. According to Ottoman law and belief, leaving Islam was a crime punishable by death. Anyone who tried to return to Christianity would face execution.

For this reason, many who had converted felt trapped. Some may have regretted denying their former faith. Their conscience may have troubled them. Yet they lacked the courage to openly confess their original belief, because doing so would lead to death.

As a result, many lived in silence and fear. Unable to go back, and unwilling to risk martyrdom, they continued in their new religion. In this way, the Ottoman Empire increased its population and strength, but often at a high personal cost to those who converted.

The Problem of a Small Nation Ruling a Large Empire

It is difficult to understand how a small group of people, even if they are brave and wise, can control a very large empire. A handful of men cannot easily govern wide lands filled with many nations and languages. Courage and good policy alone are not enough if there are not enough people to hold the territory.

History gives us an example in Alexander the Great. With an army made mostly of Macedonians, he conquered a great part of the eastern world. His victories were fast and powerful. However, his empire did not last long after his death. It was like a ship with great sails but no ballast to keep it steady. It was also like a tall tree with branches too heavy for its trunk. Without strong roots and support, it quickly fell apart Istanbul Old City Tours.

This shows that conquest alone is not enough. An empire must be supported by a large and stable population if it is to endure.

The Ottoman Policy of Welcoming Many Nations

The Ottoman Turks understood this truth. Throughout the life of their empire, they were very open to receiving people from many different nations. Few empires in history have accepted foreigners so freely.

They used many methods to increase the number of those counted as Turks. Converts to Islam were welcomed. Foreign soldiers, adventurers, and even men with troubled pasts were allowed to enter Ottoman lands and find new opportunity there.

It is remarkable that people from many parts of the world, including some who were poor, restless, or seeking fortune, came to these dominions. They adopted the religion and customs of the empire and became part of its society.

A Mixed People

Over time, the blood of the Turks became mixed with that of many languages and nations. Soldiers, officials, and common people often had ancestors from different lands. As a result, few could claim pure descent from the ancient Saracens or the earliest Turkish tribes.

This mixture did not weaken the empire in its early centuries. Instead, it increased its strength. By welcoming many peoples and joining them under one government and one faith, the Ottomans built a powerful and lasting state.

Their success shows that a growing empire must gather strength not only from its original stock, but also from those who are willing to join and serve it.

Reflection on the Blessings of a Free Country

Before ending the previous chapter, the writer pauses to reflect with gratitude on the happiness and freedom of his own country. He compares the insecurity and fear found in the Ottoman Empire with the safety enjoyed at home.

In a well-governed country, under a gracious and wise prince, people live without constant fear of sudden punishment. They are protected by stable laws. A man may work hard, improve his land, and enjoy the fruit of his labor. He may buy fields and houses with confidence that they will remain his property.

Not only can he enjoy his wealth openly, but he can also leave it to his children. His inheritance passes peacefully to the next generation. This security encourages industry, improvement, and honest pride in success. Men dare to build fine homes, plant orchards, and increase their estates because they trust that their efforts will benefit their families in the future Istanbul Old City Tours.

Such liberty and protection are seen as true blessings. They create happiness, encourage hard work, and strengthen the nation.

The Policy of Increasing Population

Every great empire in history has understood one important truth: power depends on people. A large and strong population is the foundation of military strength and lasting success. No empire can grow or even continue without enough people to defend it, cultivate its lands, and settle new territories.

A powerful nation needs soldiers for war. But it also needs farmers, builders, and settlers. After land is conquered by the sword, it must be planted, guarded, and organized. Without people to live in and protect new lands, victory in battle has little value.

The Turks understood this principle well. They developed different methods to increase their population and strengthen their empire. This was not done by chance, but by careful policy.

It is difficult to understand how one single nation, even if brave and successful in war, could produce enough natural-born subjects from its own families to fill a vast empire. War itself reduces population through death and destruction. If an empire relied only on its original stock, it might soon become weak.

For this reason, the Ottoman Empire sought other ways to increase its numbers. Conquered peoples were absorbed into the empire. Some were settled in new lands. Others were trained for military or civil service. In this way, the empire constantly renewed and enlarged its strength.

A growing population meant more soldiers for battle and more workers for peace. It ensured not only conquest, but also possession and security. Without such careful attention to numbers, even the greatest empire would slowly decline.

Fear and Uncertainty in Government

In the Ottoman Empire, it sometimes happened that a man was appointed to govern a province, even though the ruler had already decided that he would never truly take up that office. Orders might be given in public, but secretly the Sultan had no intention of allowing the man to leave the capital alive. This shows how uncertain and dangerous public service could be.

Because of this constant fear, many harmful effects appeared throughout the empire. When people live without security, they do not plan for the distant future. They think only of the present and of short enjoyment.

The Decay of Arts and Agriculture

One clear result of this system was the decline of arts and careful farming. In lands where nature was generous and the soil was rich, there was little effort to improve or beautify the countryside. Fields were not carefully cultivated, and farming methods were often simple and neglected Guided Round Tours Turkey.

Houses were usually built lightly and cheaply. They were not designed to last for many generations. Many buildings stood only ten or twenty years before they were repaired or replaced. Few people invested in strong and lasting architecture.

In the same way, beautiful gardens, orchards, and plantations were rare. Even in places where the climate and land were perfect for creating paradise-like surroundings, people avoided making great improvements. They did not wish to attract attention.

Fear of Wealth and Display

Another reason for this neglect was fear. If a man showed too much wealth, built a magnificent house, or created a splendid garden, he might draw the notice of powerful officials. Great display could cause suspicion. Wealth might be taken away, and the owner might suffer punishment.

People remembered stories like that of Naboth, whose vineyard brought trouble upon him because it attracted the desire of a king. In a similar way, visible prosperity could bring danger.

Because of this, many people hid their wealth. They dressed simply and lived modestly, even if they possessed more than they showed. The fear of being known as rich made them appear outwardly poor.

Limited Study and Ambition

This insecurity also affected learning. Men avoided deep study of arts and sciences unless such knowledge was necessary for daily life. There was little encouragement for invention, beauty, or lasting achievement. Why labor for greatness if one’s future was uncertain?

As a result, many adopted a reserved and cautious way of living. They became, in a sense, like philosophers who accept their condition quietly and avoid ambition. Fear taught them moderation, silence, and simplicity.

A Society Shaped by Power

Thus, the political system shaped not only government, but also daily life. Uncertainty weakened long-term planning, reduced artistic effort, and discouraged visible success. When power is absolute and sudden change is common, people learn to live carefully, quietly, and without great display.

Suspicion Is Enough for Destruction

In the Ottoman Empire, if a powerful man was suspected of planning rebellion or causing unrest, suspicion alone could lead to his death. It did not matter whether there was clear proof. If the Sultan believed that a governor’s wealth, influence, or natural ability made him dangerous, that was enough.

The Sultan would not openly show anger at first. Instead, he would hide his displeasure. The official might even receive signs of favor. A fine horse, a sword, or a rich fur robe might be sent as a gift. Polite words and friendly messages would be given. Everything would appear peaceful and honorable.

But this kindness was often only a disguise. At the right moment, the executioner would arrive with the bowstring, the usual instrument of execution for high officers. Once the cord was placed around the man’s neck, there was no mercy. The respect shown earlier would disappear, and the end would be swift and harsh Guided Round Tours Turkey.

This policy has been compared to a story told by the ancient writer Plutarch. He wrote that birds sometimes attack a cuckoo because they fear it may one day grow into a hawk. In the same way, the Sultan destroyed men who might later become powerful threats.

Removal Without Warning

To make space for new officers who were waiting for promotion, and to carry out executions quietly, the Sultan often used another method. A great official might be removed from his current position and given what seemed to be an even higher office in a distant province.

He would leave the capital with honor. His departure would be filled with ceremony and signs of royal favor. Surrounded by servants and filled with hope, he would travel proudly toward his new government.

Yet before three days had passed, a secret order might reach him. Without public accusation, without trial, and without clear reason other than the Sultan’s will, he would be executed. His body would often be buried quickly in a foreign land. No grand funeral, no monument, and no lasting memory would remain.

Fear as a Tool of Rule

This system created deep fear among high officials. No man, however honored, felt secure. Power depended entirely on the Sultan’s pleasure. Wealth and rank could vanish in a moment.

Such methods are similar to the policy sometimes attributed to Tiberius, who also used suspicion and sudden punishment to control powerful men. By removing those who seemed dangerous, the ruler strengthened his own position.

In this way, the Ottoman Sultan ruled through caution, secrecy, and fear. Great men rose quickly, but they could fall just as suddenly.

Cesare Borgia and the Rule of Romagna

When Cesare Borgia wanted to secure control over the region of Romagna, which he had recently conquered, he used a harsh method. The people of Romagna were not yet loyal, and disorder was common. To bring the region under control, he appointed a deputy named Remirro de Orco, a man known for his cruel and severe nature.

Remirro ruled with strict force. He punished rebels quickly and used fear to establish order. Through his harsh actions, he succeeded in making the people obey the Duke’s authority. Peace and order were restored, but the people became deeply unhappy and resentful because of the cruelty they had suffered.

A Public Execution to Change Opinion

Once order had been firmly established, Cesare Borgia decided to change how the people viewed his rule. He wanted them to believe that the cruelty they had experienced was not his fault, but the fault of his minister Guided Round Tours Turkey.

To achieve this, he ordered Remirro de Orco to be arrested and executed in the town of Cesena. The execution was carried out in a shocking way. Remirro’s body was cut in pieces and displayed publicly in the marketplace. Beside the body were placed a block of wood and a bloody knife. This sight amazed and frightened the people.

The Italian writer Niccolò Machiavelli described this event in his book The Prince. He wrote that the people were at once astonished and satisfied. They believed that justice had been done. Their anger toward the Duke lessened, and they began to see him as fair and strong.

A Similar Policy in the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Sultan understood the usefulness of this kind of policy. Like Cesare Borgia, he sometimes allowed harsh governors and officials to oppress the people. These men collected heavy taxes and acted with severity. The people hated them for their cruelty.

However, when the time was right, the Sultan would remove or punish these officials. Sometimes they were executed; other times they were stripped of their wealth. The Sultan then appeared as a just ruler correcting wrongs. The people directed their anger toward the punished minister, not toward the throne.

Power, Wealth, and Reputation

Through this method, the Sultan gained both money and reputation. The wealth taken from corrupt officials was added to the royal treasury. At the same time, the Sultan appeared merciful and just in the eyes of the people.

The officials bore the blame and hatred, while the ruler enjoyed the harvest of their actions. In this way, harsh instruments were used to strengthen the state, and their fall served to protect the image and authority of the Prince.

Control Through Oppression

The Ottoman ruler governed many different nations and peoples who had been conquered over time. These groups spoke different languages and followed different customs. To keep them obedient, the Turks often used strong and severe rule. Heavy taxation, strict laws, and harsh punishment were common tools of control.

The ordinary people, especially those who were not Turks, felt the weight of this oppression the most. They carried their burdens like animals under heavy loads. Poverty and fear kept them quiet. They had little power to resist Guided Round Tours Turkey.

However, those who were Turks and held office in the empire did not suffer in the same way. Officials and soldiers enjoyed freedom and privilege. They were often allowed to act boldly and even harshly toward others. Their position gave them confidence and pride. Since few dared to challenge them, they lived with a sense of power and superiority.

The Fate of Corrupt Governors

The end of these powerful men is very remarkable. Many governors, especially the Pashas, worked hard to gather wealth during their time in office. They taxed heavily, seized property, and enriched themselves quickly. Yet, their success often did not last long.

It was common for the Sultan to remove them suddenly. In many cases, he ordered their execution. In other cases, he stripped them of their riches and took their wealth into the royal treasury. The money they had gathered was declared to be wrongly gained.

Among all these governors, those who ruled in Cairo often suffered the hardest fate. Cairo was one of the richest and most important provinces in the empire. Because of this, its governor had many chances to become wealthy. But this also made him a target. Either on his journey back to the capital or soon after his return, he might lose his life by order of the Sultan. If he survived, he was often robbed of most of his property.

Wealth Gathered for the Sultan

It is strange to see how eagerly these men continued to gather riches, even though they knew from many examples that their wealth might soon be taken away. Experience showed them that they were often collecting treasure not for themselves, but for their master.

In the end, they kept only the hatred and curses of the people they had oppressed. The wealth passed to the Sultan, while the blame remained with them.

A Policy of Fear and Control

This system resembles the policy once used by Cesare Borgia, also known as the Duke of Valentinois. He allowed his ministers to act harshly and cruelly, and when the people grew angry, he punished those ministers publicly. In this way, he appeared just, while others bore the blame.

Similarly, the Ottoman Sultan allowed governors to enrich themselves for a time. But when it suited him, he punished them and took their wealth. Through this method, he strengthened his own power and reminded all officials that their fortune depended entirely on his will.

Offices Given for Merit in Earlier Times

In earlier times of the Ottoman Empire, especially during its strongest and most successful periods, offices were often given as rewards for merit and good service. When the empire was growing and winning wars, rulers looked carefully at the virtue, courage, and skill of their servants. Men who showed loyalty and bravery were honored openly.

Positions were given freely, without demanding large sums of money in return. Rewards were seen as gifts of royal favor, not as goods to be bought and sold. This practice allowed talented men to rise by their abilities. Their honor was not stained by payments or secret agreements. Their success reflected their worth.

During those years, the empire expanded and flourished. Strong leadership and fair reward encouraged courage and faithful service Guided Round Tours Turkey.

Change and Signs of Decline

In later times, however, this system changed. Offices were often sold for money, and merit was no longer the main reason for promotion. Wealth began to matter more than ability. This change caused many observers to believe that the empire was declining.

When good customs are replaced by corruption, it can be a sign that a state is weakening. As the Roman historian Livy once suggested, success follows when the gods favor a nation, but misfortune comes when they turn away. In the same way, the change from merit to money seemed to show a loss of strength and virtue within the Ottoman government.

Heavy Taxes and the Spirit of the People

Although this corrupt system harmed justice, it did serve one important purpose for the rulers. Governors and high officers, who had paid large sums for their positions, often placed heavy taxes on the people to recover their losses. They also seized property and demanded payments whenever possible.

As a result, the common people became poor and discouraged. Constant taxation reduced their courage. When people struggle simply to survive, they have little strength left to think about rebellion.

The English writer Francis Bacon, sometimes called Lord Verulam, wrote in his essays that a people weighed down by heavy taxes cannot become brave or warlike. A nation burdened with poverty cannot act like a lion’s cub. Strength and courage require freedom and confidence.

Control Through Poverty

In this way, heavy taxation helped keep the population quiet. Poor and tired people are less likely to rise against authority. Even when they suffer injustice, they may endure it silently.

Thus, while corruption and high taxes may weaken an empire in the long run, they can also serve as tools of control. The rulers maintained order, but at the cost of fairness, prosperity, and the spirit of the people.

Greater Security for Trade and Property

The special rule requiring written proof brought great safety to trade and to the estates of merchants. Before this protection, many dishonest men could bring false claims against foreign traders. A corrupt person might accuse a merchant of owing a large sum of money. With false witnesses and clever words, he could try to win the case and gain profit through deception.

However, once written evidence was required, such false claims became much harder to support. A man could no longer depend only on spoken testimony. He had to present a proper legal document, signed and confirmed before a judge. Because of this, many dishonest lawsuits were quickly dismissed. Claims involving large amounts of money were settled with less trouble, less cost, and greater fairness Customized Turkey Tour.

This rule acted like a wall of defense around the property of merchants. It prevented many false suits from even beginning. As a result, trade became more secure, and foreign merchants could conduct business with greater confidence.

Corruption in the Time of Bayezid IV

Corruption in the courts was not new. It had existed in earlier times as well. During the reign of Bayezid II, who was one of the early rulers of the Ottoman Empire, the courts were said to be deeply corrupt. Judges accepted bribes, and justice was often sold to the highest bidder.

The Sultan became very angry when he learned how widespread the corruption was. In his frustration, he considered ordering the execution of many lawyers and judges. He believed that severe punishment would solve the problem.

Wise Advice from a Court Jester

At this time, a court jester, who had permission to speak freely, offered wise advice. Since he could speak truth in a playful way, he told the Sultan that the main cause of corruption was not only wickedness, but poverty. The judges were poorly paid and did not receive enough income to support themselves.

The jester explained that when men lack proper wages, they may turn to bribery to survive. His words caused the Sultan to calm down and think more carefully about the real cause of the problem.

Reform Through Fair Salaries

Instead of punishing the judges with death, Bayezid chose a wiser solution. He granted them pardons and introduced regular salaries. He also allowed them to collect fixed and lawful fees for certain legal services.

For example, in cases involving large sums of money, judges were allowed to receive a small official fee. They were also given payment for preparing legal documents outside the court.

By providing steady income, the Sultan hoped to remove the need for bribery. This reform showed that corruption can sometimes be reduced not only by punishment, but also by fair and reasonable support for those who serve in public office.

False Witness and Religious Bias

Another serious problem in the Ottoman courts was the ease with which some people gave false witness. It was said that for a small payment, or even for very little reward, some Turks would agree to testify falsely in court. This was especially true in cases between a Christian and a Muslim.

When such disputes arose, religious feeling often influenced the result. Some believed that supporting a Muslim against a Christian was a religious duty. Because of this belief, false testimony was sometimes excused or even praised. Lying in such a case was not always seen as a sin, but as an act done for the benefit of the Muslim community Customized Turkey Tour.

There were reports that some witnesses did not even wait to be asked. They would come forward willingly and offer testimony against a Christian. In this way, religion was used as a reason to justify dishonesty. When both judges and witnesses were guided by such ideas, justice could easily lose its true meaning.

Justice Out of Order

Because of these practices, justice in the Ottoman courts often moved far away from fairness. When false witnesses were accepted, and religious bias was allowed to influence decisions, the courts could no longer be trusted to treat all people equally.

In such a system, a Christian bringing a complaint against a Muslim faced great difficulty. Even if his case was strong, he could lose if witnesses spoke falsely against him. This created fear and insecurity among foreign merchants and travelers living within the empire.

Protection for English Merchants

For this reason, an English ambassador took careful steps when renewing agreements, known as capitulations, with the Ottoman government. These agreements protected the rights of English subjects living and trading in Ottoman lands.

The ambassador wisely added a special article for protection. It stated that the testimony of Turkish witnesses alone should not be accepted in court against the interests of English merchants. Instead, proof had to be given in writing.

The only evidence allowed in such cases was a formal legal document, called a “Hoget.” This was similar to a written contract or official statement made before a judge. It could also be a written bill or paper signed by the person against whom the claim was made.

The Importance of Written Evidence

This rule proved to be very wise and useful. By requiring written proof, the English merchants were protected from false witnesses and unfair accusations. It reduced the danger of religious bias in legal disputes.

Written documents were harder to deny or falsify than spoken words. They provided stronger and clearer evidence. As a result, English traders could conduct their business with greater confidence and safety.

Through this careful agreement, justice for English subjects became more secure, even within a legal system that often suffered from corruption and partiality.

Greed and Sudden Wealth

When we consider all these circumstances together, we can better understand the condition of the Ottoman government. Many of the officials were known for their strong desire for wealth. Some of them had been born and raised in poverty. When such men suddenly became rich and powerful, they often did not know how to manage their new fortune wisely.

A person who rises quickly from need to great wealth may not control his desires. Long years of want can create strong and restless ambition. When such a man finally gains power, he may try to satisfy all his wishes at once. Instead of showing moderation, he may act with greed and harshness Customized Turkey Tour.

This sudden change of fortune could lead to serious problems. Men who had once suffered in poverty sometimes became narrow in spirit and cruel in action when authority was placed in their hands.

Oppression and Injustice

Because these officers often entered office already burdened with heavy debts, they felt forced to collect as much money as possible. The result was oppression, violence, and unfair treatment of the people. Taxes could be increased without mercy. Fines and punishments might be given not for justice, but for profit.

Justice itself was often treated as something to be sold. When a legal case came before a judge, it was common for both parties to offer gifts or money before the hearing even began. Each side tried to win the judge’s favor through secret payments.

In such a system, the person with the most money often had the strongest position in court. Instead of asking who was right, many asked who could pay more. A poor man, even if innocent, had little hope against a wealthy opponent.

The Buying and Selling of Justice

It became normal practice for both sides in a dispute to meet the judge privately before the official hearing. Each person tried to give a larger present than the other. The judge, who had already paid a high price to obtain his office, saw this as a way to recover his losses.

If a man had bought his position, it seemed natural to him to sell the benefits of that position. Justice became a kind of trade. The office was purchased first, and then its fruits were sold to others.

The Result for Society

Such practices weakened trust in the courts and harmed the people. When justice is no longer fair, society suffers. The poor are left without protection, and the powerful grow stronger.

This system, built on buying and selling offices, created a cycle of debt, greed, and corruption. While it strengthened the ruler’s control, it often brought hardship to the people under his authority.

Buying High Office

This system did not only show the power of the Sultan, but it also increased it. In many cases, men who were raised to high office had to pay very large sums of money to receive their positions. The higher the office and the greater the expected profit, the more money was required.

For example, the governors of important provinces such as Cairo and Baghdad were required to pay enormous amounts when they received their commissions. Some paid three or four hundred thousand dollars. Others paid one or two hundred thousand. For smaller offices, the payment might be fifty thousand dollars, depending on how important the position was.

These payments were not small gifts. They were often the price of the office itself Customized Turkey Tour.

Heavy Debts and High Interest

Most men did not have such large sums ready in their own hands. Therefore, they borrowed money. The loans were often taken at very high interest rates, sometimes forty or fifty percent per year. In some cases, the rate was even higher.

Many officials were forced to borrow from powerful and greedy lenders inside the palace, including wealthy eunuchs of the imperial household. These lenders demanded strict repayment. Because of this, a man entering office often began his service already deeply in debt.

From the first day of his appointment, he felt the heavy weight of what he owed.

The Pressure to Recover Losses

Since these officials had borrowed large sums, they felt strong pressure to recover their money as quickly as possible. They had to repay their debts and also try to gain profit for themselves. This often led them to collect heavy taxes or demand payments from the people under their authority.

They could not delay. The Sultan might remove them from office at any time. A sudden order could end their position before they had earned enough to repay what they owed. Therefore, they worked quickly, sometimes without fairness or mercy, to gather wealth during their short time in power.

A System of Fear and Urgency

This system created a government filled with urgency and fear. Every official knew that his position might not last long. He was like a servant who had been trusted with a large responsibility but could be called to give account at any moment.

Because of this, many officers thought more about quick profit than about long-term justice. The need to repay debts and secure their future shaped their actions.

In this way, the practice of selling offices not only strengthened the Sultan’s control but also deeply influenced the behavior of those who served under him.

The Power of the Grand Signior

In the Ottoman system, the first concern was always the power of the ruler, known as the Grand Signior, or Sultan. The government was arranged in a way that protected the strength and safety of the Emperor before the comfort or welfare of the common people. The main goal of the system was to keep the Sultan’s authority strong and unquestioned.

The Sultan showed his power most clearly by giving and taking away his favor. He could raise a man to high office, give him wealth and honor, and then remove him just as quickly. This control over appointments was one of the strongest tools of his rule. Every officer knew that his success depended completely on the Sultan’s will Customized Turkey Tour.

Education and Preparation for Office

The Ottoman rulers trained many young men for government service. These men were educated carefully and prepared for important offices. Many of them waited as candidates, hoping to receive positions in the court or the army.

If there had been only a few offices and many trained men, the Sultan’s power might have seemed weak. It would have been like a father who spent more money educating his sons than he had property to give them. If the father could not reward his sons properly, his authority in the family might suffer.

In the same way, the Sultan needed to manage opportunities wisely. He had to balance the number of trained officials with the number of offices available. By frequently changing officers, he made room for new men to rise. This kept hope alive among those who waited for promotion.

The Sultan Compared to the Sun

The Sultan’s power was often compared to the sun. Just as the sun gives light to one part of the world while another part is in darkness, the Sultan gave favor to some men while removing it from others. When one officer lost his position, another gained it.

This constant movement of favor made the Sultan appear as the source of all success. Like the sun spreading its rays, he shared his influence across the empire. By lifting one man and lowering another, he reminded everyone that honor, wealth, and power came only from him.

Authority Above All

Through this system, the Sultan was seen as the common father of all his servants. Every official depended on him. No one could claim lasting power on his own. This careful control of appointments helped protect the throne and kept the empire united under a single, absolute ruler.

In this way, the health of the monarchy was always placed above every other concern.

Who Could Join the Republic

In this system, only certain men were allowed to become members of the republic. They were either men who had been born Christians and later converted to Islam, or men who came from other parts of the Turkish dominions. Local-born sons of Turks were often excluded from high office. The rulers believed that this rule would keep the government strong and united.

By preventing family succession in office, the Turkish leaders tried to protect the absolute power of their great Sultan. They were very careful about allowing power to pass from father to son. They feared that inherited positions might weaken the authority of the throne. For this reason, they avoided giving long-term control to any single family Customized Turkey Tours.

The Principles of Turkish Policy

The political system of the Ottoman Empire, often called the “Turkish policy,” was built on strict control. One important rule was the frequent exchange of officers. This meant that one man was raised to a high position, while another was removed or lowered in rank. This practice was common and was believed to be healthy for the state.

The rulers thought that changing officers often would prevent them from becoming too powerful. If a man stayed too long in one office, he might build strong personal connections, gather wealth, or gain influence over soldiers and people. This could become a threat to the Sultan’s authority.

The Rise and Fall of Great Men

Anyone who carefully watched the Ottoman court would see many sudden changes in fortune. A man who was poor and unknown one day could quickly rise to wealth and honor through the Sultan’s favor. He might receive high office, riches, and respect.

However, this success could end just as quickly. The same man, once highly honored, might lose his position overnight. He could be removed from office, sent into exile, or even executed. His fall could be as sudden as his rise.

This constant change made life at court uncertain. It was like watching a play, where scenes open and close very quickly. Great men appeared like bright stars in the sky, shining for a short time, and then disappearing.

The Reason for Constant Change

The main reason for these frequent changes was to protect the Sultan’s absolute power. By raising one officer and lowering another, the Sultan reminded everyone that all honor and authority came from him alone.

No officer could feel secure in his position. Each man depended entirely on the Sultan’s favor. This rule helped keep the empire under strong control and prevented the growth of rival powers within the state.

In this way, the Ottoman system valued loyalty over family ties and constant change over stability in office.

The Special Rules of the Mamluk Order

In the Mamluk system of Egypt, strict rules controlled who could become a member of the ruling military class. A person born into a Muslim family was not allowed to enter the Mamluk order by birth. Even the sons of Mamluk rulers could not inherit their fathers’ military rank or political authority.

Only certain people could become Mamluks. Most were originally born as Christians in other lands. As young boys, they were taken or brought to Egypt, made slaves, and educated in Islam. After training in religion and military skills, they could rise in rank and eventually gain power Customized Turkey Tours.

Sometimes older men were also accepted, but only if they left their former religion and country and entered the service of the Mamluk state. This unusual system prevented the development of a hereditary noble class. Leadership was based on military loyalty and training, not family blood.

This government lasted for about 267 years. It ended in 1517, when Selim I conquered Egypt and brought it under Ottoman control. After that, the independent Mamluk rule came to an end.

The Rise of the Government in Algiers

Another similar political system developed later in Algiers. Its beginning is connected with Hayreddin Barbarossa, a famous sea captain and corsair. With the arrival of many Turkish soldiers and sailors from the Levant, the rulers of Algiers asked for protection from the Ottoman Sultan.

At first, a Pasha was sent from the Ottoman capital to govern the province. However, over time, the real power passed into the hands of the local military leaders. The Pasha remained in name, but he had little actual authority. The government was effectively controlled by a council of military officers.

Exclusion of Local-Born Turks

The leaders of Algiers feared that power might slowly pass into the hands of local families. To prevent this, they made strict laws. The sons of Turkish men who were born in Algiers, known as “Kouloughlis,” were not allowed to hold high office in the government.

Instead, preference was given to men who had been born as Christians and later converted to Islam. These converts were seen as more loyal to the military system and less connected to local interests.

A System Based on Loyalty, Not Birth

Both the Mamluk government in Egypt and the later system in Algiers show a political model based on military strength and loyalty rather than hereditary right. In these states, power did not pass from father to son. Instead, leadership depended on service, discipline, and support from the ruling military group.

Although these systems may seem harsh or unusual, they were designed to prevent the rise of independent noble families and to maintain control within a loyal military elite.

Popular Forms of Government in the Islamic World

It is not far from our subject to speak about two forms of government that were almost completely popular in character. One of them has already ended, and the other began later and continued to flourish for some time. These were the commonwealth of the Mamluks in Egypt and the later government established in Algiers.

Both systems were unusual because power did not pass from father to son in the normal royal way. Instead, leadership was controlled by a military group. These examples show a very different political model from hereditary monarchy.

The Mamluk Commonwealth in Egypt

The first example was the rule of the Mamluks in Egypt. The Mamluks were originally military slaves who rose to great power. Over time, they removed the ruling family and took control of the government themselves. One famous Mamluk ruler was Al-Ashraf Khalil, although many others ruled before and after him Customized Turkey Tours.

The Mamluks created a special law to protect their system. The sons of Mamluk leaders were allowed to inherit their fathers’ private property, such as land and goods. However, they were not allowed to inherit their fathers’ official positions or titles. A son could not automatically become a Mamluk ruler simply because of his birth.

This rule was meant to prevent the creation of a hereditary noble class. The Mamluk system depended on military strength and personal ability, not family lineage. In fact, many Mamluk leaders had originally been born outside Egypt and brought there as young slaves.

The Government of Algiers

A similar form of government later appeared in Algiers. In this case, power was largely controlled by military leaders known as Deys. One example is Baba Ali Chaouch, who ruled in the eighteenth century.

In Algiers, the ruling authority was not strictly hereditary. Leaders were often chosen from among military officers. As in the Mamluk system, sons did not automatically succeed their fathers in political power. Authority depended more on military support and political skill than on noble birth.

A Different Political Model

Both Egypt under the Mamluks and Algiers under the Deys show a form of government that was not based on royal succession. Instead of a single ruling family passing power through generations, leadership changed according to strength, influence, and support.

These examples stand in contrast to monarchies where royal blood decides everything. In these popular or military commonwealths, power belonged to a group rather than to one hereditary dynasty. Although these systems had their own problems, they demonstrate that different political structures existed alongside traditional monarchy.